Professional blog

Case Teaching Resources F R O M T H E E V A N S S C H O O L O F P U B L I C A F F A I R S

T h e

E l e c t r o n i c H a l l w a y ®

Box 353060 · Universi ty of Washington · Seattle WA 98195-3060 www.hallway.org

________________________________________________________________________________________________ This teaching resource was prepared by John Boehrer, senior consulting editor for The Electronic Hallway. The Electronic Hallway is administered by the University of Washington’s Daniel J. Evans School of Public Affairs. This material may not be altered or copied without written permission from The Electronic Hallway. For permission, email [email protected], or phone (206) 616-8777. Electronic Hallway members are granted copy permission for educational purposes per the Member’s Agreement (www.hallway.org).

Copyright 2003 The Electronic Hallway

WRITING EFFECTIVE MEMOS

Public policy and management graduates report that systematic thinking and effective writing are among the most important products of their schooling. Indeed, their direct, concise communication is a strength often recognized by employers and colleagues. Writing a forceful, straightforward memo is a frequent assignment in public policy and management schools, and it is worthwhile taking the opportunity to sharpen your skill. Here are some suggestions: An effective memo answers a specific request – or meets a perceived need – for information and ideas. Ideas have the greatest impact when the writer aims to make maximum use of limited access to the reader’s attention. When the writer directs attention quickly to the main ideas, expresses them plainly, and makes them stand out, the reader can grasp them the first time through the memo. Three initial steps make writing the memo more systematic and reading it more productive: 1. Analyze the audience: To whom are you writing? Why do they want your

information or ideas? What do they already know? What perspective or opinions do they have? How do they think? Who else might be exposed to what you write? How?

2. Define the subject: What, exactly are you writing about? e.g., “The Fish and

Wildlife Department”? Or, “Reorganization of the Fish and Wildlife Department”? Or, “Recommendations for Improving Efficiency in the Fish and Wildlife Department”? Unlike a letter, a memo has only one unified subject.

3. Determine the purpose: Why are you actually writing the memo? e.g., to encourage

the director to act? Or, to persuade him to adopt a certain policy? Or, to broaden his perception of the alternatives? Or, to compare various risks…?

Accuracy about your subject and purpose is important to both you and your audience, so that you can select and organize effectively, so that they can read and understand efficiently. Announce the subject in the heading of the memo. State the purpose – or imply it clearly – in the opening sentences.

2

Effective memos combine several important features: • Complete, informative heading: This includes the correct date, the full names and

titles of the writer and addressee, and the accurate subject. Time gives part of the meaning to information and ideas, and every written communication is a record.

• Straightforward, explicit organization: Expressing a clear purpose captures the

reader’s attention. Exposing the outline, e.g., by listing main points, guides the reader through the memo. Explaining reasoning and giving evidence makes your thinking accessible. Summarizing reinforces both your argument and the reader’s grasp of it.

• Minimal introduction: This is only what is required to orient the reader to the

subject, provide necessary background, and frame the reader’s thinking about your information or ideas.

• Deliberate emphasis: Ideally, the reader can literally see the outline and main points

of your memo. Emphasis comes from section and paragraph headings; capitalization, boldface, and italics; setting off and marking items with bullets, asterisks, letters, numbers, etc. Numbering paragraphs without headings is ineffective: the point is to help the reader see and remember key words and phrases, and to emphasize ranking and order – don’t number unless you mean to so emphasize. Emphasis also comes from repetition, as in summaries.

• Concise expression: Simpler sentences and fewer words make memos clearer and

more convincing. Avoiding the passive voice is the single most effective route to clarity. The following contrast makes this plain:

Passive original – “Effective participation of farmers in the program was achieved by providing a steady and remunerative market for dairy products without which they would not have been induced to increase production and adopt scientific practices.”

Active re-write – “Providing a steady and remunerative market for dairy products motivated farmers to increase production and adopt scientific practices. This response made their participation in the program effective.”

Re-writing to eliminate the passive voice almost always leads to clearer thinking and expression.

• Clean, inviting appearance: The visual impact of your memo affects the reader’s

ability to grasp your ideas quickly and easily. Large, dense blocks of type are intimidating. Reasonable margins and double-spacing, at least between paragraphs, help the reader see. Headings, capitalization, and similar devices lead the eye as well as the mind.

3

Writing an effective memo is demanding work, but it consists of systematic actions: • Start by thinking clearly. Who is your audience? What are you writing about? Why

are you writing? • Write in order to think. Don’t try to edit in your head; think freely on paper. Discover

what you think, and figure out how you can say it clearly. • Re-write for your audience. Strive for clarity, directness, and conciseness.

Cut out what you don’t really need. Proofread for accuracy. • Read your writing critically. Adopt your reader’s point of view. Challenge your

writing to be clear and accurate. Show your writing to someone who is unfamiliar with the subject, and ask her to tell you what she doesn’t understand. Then fix it.

Teach i n g Case Reso u r ces f r o m t h e Ev an s Sch o o l o f Pu b l i c Af f a i r s

T h e

E l e c t r o n i c H a l l w a y ®

Box 353060 · University of Washington · Seatt le WA 98195-3060 www.hallway.org

This teaching resource was written by J. Patrick Dobel, Daniel J. Evans School of Public Affairs, University of Washington; Richard Elmore, Harvard University Graduate School of Education; and Laurie Werner, Daniel J. Evans School of Public Affairs, University of Washington. The Electronic Hallway is administered by the University of Washington’s Daniel J. Evans School of Public Affairs. This material may not be altered or copied without written permission from The Electronic Hallway. For permission, email [email protected], or phone (206) 616-8777. Electronic Hallway members are granted copy permission for educational purposes per the Member’s Agreement (www.hallway.org).

Copyright 2003 The Electronic Hallway

MEMO WRITING

This note introduces memo writing to students training for careers in public service.

It focuses on memos rather than research papers or essays, because memos pervade the

daily life of any public servant.

A memo is a relatively short, written document. Memos address specific people or

groups for the purpose of recording an agreement, transmitting information, making a

case, or enabling action. Brevity is essential; most decision makers have little time and

must assimilate memo contents quickly. Long memos don’t get read.

Think of a memo as a precision tool. Tools may be beautiful things in themselves, but we

measure their value by how well they perform a task. In practical terms, every aspect of a

memo – its prose style, organization, appearance on the page and content – should have a

direct relationship to its purpose. Long flowery introductions, technical jargon, casual

chit-chat, and showy vocabulary all distract from a memo’s essential purpose: to inform

or to enable action.

This note deals with four topics: identifying your audience or principal; getting yourself

engaged in writing; using language; and organizing the final product. Added to these are

notes on e-mail communications.

Know Your Audience or Principal

Specific people read memos. The more vaguely defined the target audience, the more

difficult for the writer to decide what to say. Knowing your audience is of primary

importance in memo writing. Ask yourself three questions about your audience: who are

they, what do they need to know, and how should you present it to them?

• Who is the audience of your memo? Memos are directed at decision makers.

Usually you write a memo for an individual or group to help them make a

decision. To influence decision makers, you must give considerable thought to

who they are. You have a duty to provide them with timely, accurate, and

comprehensive analysis.

2

• What do they need to know? To meet the obligations of memo writing, you

should ask: what type of information do they need to make a good decision?

§ Start writing your memo by considering the position of your readers and

their responsibilities, constraints, and pressures. You should keep in mind

how much knowledge they already have and tailor your information to their

level of expertise.

§ Decide how much and what type of information they need to make a good

decision. Keep four things in mind when considering this:

1. Your audience relies on you for accurate and relevant information. This

reliance places strong obligations upon you to choose information well

and present decision makers with all sides of the issues. Unless you are

designated as an advocate or identify yourself as such, you must strive for

an unbiased presentation of the information. Individuals are often tempted

to push their own agendas without regard to the requirements of a good

decision by the principal. This is legitimate when so acknowledged in the

memo. All memos however, should do justice to complex issues and to

your principals. They are making the decision, not you.

2. Provide the bad news as well as the good. You should alert your

principals to the dangers, problems, and implications of decisions, as well

as to the advantages. Although memos drive people toward decisions,

you may have the unhappy but vital duty of telling readers they need more

information to make a good decision. Often memos can only be

summaries of arguments and reports, like the tip of an iceberg. The author

should have supporting arguments and information to provide to the

principals when needed or requested.

3. Before making a recommendation, make sure you have laid out honest

and realistic alternatives. Don’t fall into what Henry Kissinger called the

“war, surrender, my way” memo. It violates your responsibility to your

principal, and a thoughtful reader will dismiss your analysis.

4. In recommending a course of action, clearly lay out the reasons.

Anticipate questions, address them honestly, and compare your

recommendation to other options. It is your job to anticipate needs and

support the decision maker.

• How should you present the information to them? Present all information with

economy and clarity. Effectively writing a memo is a task that requires a special

emphasis on clear formatting and accessible writing. Serve the reader’s need to

access information quickly with judicious use of headings and bullets.

3

How to Get Engaged in Serious Writing

Writing is difficult, frustrating work. As a craft, it entails a set of specific, learnable skills,

and results in a tangible product. The harder you work, and the more determined you are

to master the skills, the better you will become. Like any craft, writing requires practice.

When you sit down to write your memo, two steps will help engage you in writing:

developing a system for writing, and getting help when necessary.

• Because writing is difficult, you need an explicit system for getting started and

finished. Most memo writing is done under pressure. Under these conditions

people can get stalled, confused, and side-tracked by psychological stress. Having

a deliberate system gives you the self-discipline to plunge ahead in the face of this

stress. In the absence of a system, you will find that you spend large amounts of

time trying to figure out what you’re doing. It doesn’t matter particularly what

system you use, so long as you have one and use it. Some people start with an

outline and produce progressively finer drafts until they have a finished product.

Some people “dump” everything they know about a given subject and then start

culling and sorting, until they produce a coherent piece. Others begin with a few

simple statements or assertions and then frame an argument around them.

Experiment with a variety of methods, until you find one that suits your

temperament.

• If you are having genuine difficulty and find that you don’t know what to do, get

help. Writing workshops are plentiful. Get together with a group of students for

the express purpose of talking about writing problems. Get suggestions from your

professors. Don’t retreat from the problem. You will need to write well in every

job you have.

Using the Language

Remember that your written work presents you to others. Your use of language will

shape their assessment of you. Sloppy phrasing, bad grammar, and incorrect spelling, for

example, demonstrate unreflective thought. Respecting yourself, your ideas, and your

principal should motivate you to master this essential means of communication. Your

writing should strive for five important qualities: simplicity, straightforward sentence

structure, clarity, clear action and responsibility, and correctness.

Simplicity is the mark of good writing. Complex sentence structure and organization is a

sure sign of confusion or hidden agendas. A well-written memo will be so simple and

straightforward in language and structure that it will leap off the page. Don’t, however,

make the mistake of equating simplicity with ease of production. The harder you work,

the simpler the prose gets: the more you shirk, the muddier it will be. Consider the

following example:

4

Whether it is true or not, and there are strong indications that it is not, the

allegation by the County of substandard performance against the

contractor is premature and certainly serves no useful purpose.

This author tried to write in a “conversational” tone. Conversational language tends to be

more complicated, elliptical, and indeterminate than good written prose. Written prose

has to be edited to be good. Novice writers often respond to tough editing by

complaining, “You’ve taken all the creative words out of my writing. Now it looks like

something anybody could have written.” In fact, tough editing does exactly the opposite.

It makes your writing very distinctive. Remember, the message carries the mark of your

individual creativity.

Straightforward sentence structure is essential to clear communication. First, get the

basic elements of the sentence straight: subject, verb, and object. Who is the actor?

What action is the actor performing? On what or whom is the actor acting? What is the

writer’s purpose in describing the relationship between actor and action?

The county has accused the contractor of poor performance. This

accusation is premature and possibly untrue.

County, accuse, contractor – these are the elements. By stressing them, we cut the

number of words roughly in half, from 37 to 16. We specified the nature of the action

(accuse); we exchanged bureaucratic fuzz-words (allegation, substandard) for simple

ones (accuse, poor); and we allowed the writer to express some uncertainty about the

conclusions (possibly). The reader now captures the spirit of the writer’s message much

more readily. These are the simplest writing techniques. Strip sentences to their

elements, and make those elements drive your sentences. Subject first, then verb, then

object. Apply the techniques to this example:

With respect to problems of interim financing, and in consideration of the

fact that short-term interest rates are prohibitive, the decision was made by

the Finance Committee that the project should not be pursued beyond

stage three of the design process until appropriate long-term financing can

be secured through established capital market sources.1

Clarity in word choice marks good writing. Clarity means three things: (a) choosing the

right word; (b) preferring simple words or combinations over complex ones; and (c)

avoiding unnecessary technical jargon.

• Choosing the right word is more difficult than it appears. When you begin

writing something, certain stock phrases and terms roll out of your head onto the

paper. These phrases and terms are cues to what you want to say, but often they

1 The Finance Committee considered interest rates for short-term loans too high. It therefore decided not to

pursue the design process beyond stage three until lenders agree to long-term financing. (31 words v. 55)

5

do not convey what you actually mean. To communicate clearly, sort through

alternative ways of saying what you mean. Get something on paper. Then, use

your vocabulary, the dictionary, or a thesaurus, and deliberately substitute simpler

words for complicated and ambiguous ones. Give special attention to verbs, and

use the active voice.

• Complex phrases that have mushy meanings often litter memos, because writers

get caught in a cycle of “bureaucratese.” Take the following example:

Current fiscal management techniques and control practices are

keyed to the fiscal-year budgeting processes of the government

cycle. They result in inefficient resource utilization because

administrators increase expenditures toward the end of annual

budget cycles in order to assure zero-balance results and reporting,

rather than maximum efficiency in resource utilization.

This example features many quasi-technical terms: “fiscal management

techniques,” “resource utilization,” and “budget cycles.” These are common in

bureaucracy but don’t communicate much. In a more active, direct form the

example reads:

Administrators tend to spend more at the end of the fiscal year,

because they will lose the money they don’t spend. Typically, they

are not allowed to carry money forward into the following year.

This results in expenditures that often are not the best use of public

money.

We’ve left “fiscal year” in, because it is a technical term that has important

meaning. Beyond that, we stripped out all the quasi-technical terms and replaced

them with simpler words.

Certain complex and mushy words creep into the language of public servants and

become standard usage. Because bureaucrats use these words routinely, the

public begins to think that bureaucrats are evasive. They are probably not – just

insufficiently critical of their own language. Here is a list of some common

bureaucratic words and their standard English equivalents.

Bureaucratic English

facilitate help/assist

prioritize rank

indicate say/show

impact affect/effect

concept idea

6

Another recent trend has been turning nouns into verbs. The trend started in

computer circles where people “interface” with each other and “multiport” data.

Today public officials “outsource” functions and “task” people to perform jobs.

Such jargon separates public officials from citizens and creates a mystifying and

unnecessary code to hide bureaucrats from accountability.

A similar common practice is turning nouns and verbs into adjectives and running

them together as strange compound words. These words often sound very

important, but mean almost nothing. The following words come directly from the

papers of students trying to sound like bureaucrats:

Nouns into Adjectives Verbs into Adjectives

program initiation diagnostic review

programmatic decision making circumvention practice

definitional terms allocation routine

problem areas elimination criteria

personnel involvement decisional alternative

For each of these compounds, someone took a noun (program, definition,

problem, etc.) or a verb (diagnose, circumvent, decide) and stuck it in front of a

noun, giving it the function of an adjective. You can make adverbs the same way:

programmatically initiated, diagnostically reviewed, etc. This clumping however,

creates unwieldy, often unintelligible, prose and leaves little regard for a word’s

root meaning or function.

The skill required to avoid this kind of clumping is simple. First, learn the

difference between nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Second, don’t use

compounds when a simple construction will suffice. Look at a number of

alternative ways of saying something, and choose the simplest way, rather than

jamming words together because they sound authoritative and bureaucratic.

Principals need lucidity, not jargon.

• Technical jargon becomes a barrier to clear communication. When someone

writes, “The purpose of our new thrust is to facilitate a more credible interface

between clients and service deliverers and to indicate to top management how

they ought to prioritize agency functions according to standard management

concepts,” you know he is not writing for real human beings. Fellow citizens will

have a difficult time trying to decipher the jargon. Automatically translate the

words into English. If it doesn’t make sense in English, then you have an

important piece of information – the person doesn’t know what he is saying. If it

does make sense, then there is a better way to say it.

As trustees of the common good, public officials have a special obligation to write

in language that acknowledges and includes all members of the community.

7

A civic language should include the entire population. This requires that we avoid

language that limits the citizenry to certain groups and implicitly excludes the rest

of the population. In a more positive way, it obligates us to search for language

that respects and acknowledges all individuals.

Inclusive language, however, does not mean we must resort to awful English.

Only muddled good intentions create these bureaucratic monstrosities: s/he, or

his/her. In this case, inclusive language involves using plural pronouns, using both

pronouns connected by “or” (he or she) or alternating the pronouns by section or

example. The English language is evolving in the attempt to develop a more

inclusive public vocabulary. Public officials should take the lead in this effort

without reducing the language to trendy or bureaucratic neologisms.

Clearly assigning action and responsibility will characterize skilled writing. Bureaucrats

notoriously use language to obscure responsibility. They often think they are being clever

by saying things in a way that hides who is supposed to be doing what. The typical

means of obscuring responsibility are the passive voice and the editorial “we.”

• The classic device to hide responsibility is the passive voice, where the subject is

driven (by the agent). Passive construction diffuses your analysis and backs into

major points. Remember that the strength of the English language resides in verbs.

Use strong, active verbs. A good editor tries to eliminate as many copulatives

(there… is, are, was, were) and we